Rais belong to the Kirant confederation. Since ancient times, Rais are living in the districts of Solukhumbu, Okhaldhunga, Khotang, Bhojpur and Udaypur. Rais speak many dialects of the Tibeto-Burman family. They have their own unique religion. Their principal scripture is Mundhum. Sikatakhu Budo, Walmo Budi, Jalpa Devi and others are their local deities. Rich in culture, the Sakela (Chandi) Dance and the sharing of newly harvested foods in Nwagi are their principal festivals. Rais cremate their dead. Pork is used for auspicious and holy occasions. They consider Sumnima and Parohang as their primordial parents. There are many Rai clans. Their houses are scattered. Short in stature, round in face and stout in build, Rais are expert in farming and textile weaving. Following the unification of the Kingdom of Nepal Rais were given rights of kipat autonomy and ownership of land in the Majh (middle) Kirant. The Rai language, though it has no script, is rich in texture. Their population, according to Census 2001, is 635,151.

Rais are indigenous to the Majh or Middle Kirat of eastern Nepal. The Rai are also known in their own villages as Jimi Kirati. The Rais were also known in the past as Khambu. In fact, the Rais are a community made up of different and varied linguistic subgroups. Thus, Mcdougal says that Rai is not a tribe but a collectivity of various linguistic, cultural and social subgroupings (1989:12). Anthropologist Allen (1998), however, thinks that Rais are a subgroup of the Kirat tribe and are linguistically divided into various subgroups. The traditional land of Rai is Shyarkhumbu or Solukhumbu. But those who say that the rulers of Kathmandu Valley in prehistoric times, who have come to be known as Kirat, were Rai regard all the territory east of Kathmandu as the land of the Rais. The Rais have come to live in historical times in the Majh or Middle Kirat to the east of the Likhu River and the west of the Arun River. At present, their main settlements are in the districts of Bhojhpur, Okhaldhunga, Udayapur, Khotang, Solukhumbu, Sakhuwasabha, Ilam and Dhankuta. The Rais are also found in some other districts of the country and also in India and foreign countries. The population of Rais, according to the census of 2001, is 635,151.

The Rais have their own language belonging to the Tibeto-Burman language family. The Rai language is in essence a collective name for all the languages spoken in Majh or Middle Kirat. These languages are known as the Kirati language. In the Kirati language group, apart from Limbu and Yakkha languages, 35 other languages/dialects have been identified (Gurung, BS2057).

The culture of Rais is based on the tradition of their own Kirat religion. The child is named four days after birth, following which the Rai priest (Bijuwa or Ngopa) lifts the head of the mother and child after performing special ceremonies and gives a name to the child (Toba, 1992:19). During the initiation ceremony, the rope used for tethering cows is used. Love marriage with agreement between both partners is common. Whatever the type of marriage, however, those from the boy's side have to go with alcohol and gifts (sagun) to the girl's house and ask for their consent and offer apologies. The Rais do not marry their maternal uncle's and aunt's daughters, though there is a practice of marrying one's windowed elder sister-in-law.

The dead are buried, although some also cremate the dead or leave the body in a river to flow with the current. These customs vary among the different subgroups of Rais. After abstaining from eating three meals and from eating salt and oil for five meals, the period of pollution is over. The Rais have much faith and trust in stones and grass, and when undertaking a vow for any reason, they take stone and grass in their hands. Although Rai are divided into many subgroups, they do not practise any discrimination on the basis of these groups and there are no rules of commonality while dining. Women are not discriminated against in Rai society.

The Rais follow the customs and traditions made by their elders and leaders. Their social strictures and rituals are open and liberal. People from other ethnic groups have assimilated into the subgroup (Sharma, BS2052:110). The thar or subgroup and further smaller groupings (Pacha) within the subgroup number more than four dozens among Rais. Each pacha or grouping has its own beliefs and customs, and some do not partake of goat meat while others do. The Rais extensively use alcohol not only in religious activities but also in social activities. The Rais have the tradition of Parma or reciprocal labour system. The religion of Rai is Kirat religion. They worship Sumnima and Paruhang as the archetypal proto-female and proto-male respectively. The worship of ancestors is significant and occurs to a great extent among the Rais. As a form of land worship, Rais perform the Sakela Puja (Chandi Puja) in the months of Baisakh and Mangsir. The oven of Rais has three Chamka (stove), which symbolizes three gods. Ginger, home-brewed beer of millet, a pot (Chinda) for keeping beer and banana leaves are very important among the Rais. The religious text of Rai is Muddhum (Mundhum), which is in oral form.

Rai are mainly farmers; therefore, their main occupation is farming. Hunting is their profession from time past, and they like to use bow and arrows. In the past they used to weave their own clothes (Khandi) to wear. Nowadays, the Rais are also employed in foreign military service and in foreign employment.

  Sunuwars live in the land between the Likhu and Khimti rivers and in the districts of Okhaldhunga, Ramechhap and Dolkha. They have their own unique language and culture. They had their kipat rights on their ancestral lands. Because of their adherence to the Kirant religion, they are considered closer to the Rais. However, sociologists opine that they are more akin to the language and culture of the Magars with whom they also share similar physical resemblance. Sunuwars, Surels and Jirels are socially close-knit communities. Sunuwars are mostly engaged in farming. Their population, according to Census 2001, is 95,254.

The indigenous people Sunuwar of Mongoloid stock are the indigenous inhabitants of Near or Wallo Kirat, ie of the Sunkosi region to the east of Sangabhanjyang and the west of Dudhkosi river. Some are of the opinion that their name derives from the fact that they live on the banks of the Sunkosi river or they are the protectors of goldmines, guardians of all, while it is also said that as descendants of natural elements like the sun, land, water, air, they have come to be known as Sunuwar (Sunuwar, BS2056). Some have emphasized that as a group belonging to the solar lineage and as worshippers of the sun they have come to be known as Sunuwar (Sunuwar, BS2055). According to Eden Vansitart (1991:137), the Sunuwars have been called so because they live on one side (wari) of the Sunkosi river. As far as the Sunuwars are concered, they call themselves Koinch. Whatever the fact regarding their origin, there is no disputing that the Sunuwar are Kirats. As they were conferred the title of Mukhiya during the reign of King Girvan Yuddha Bikram Shah (1797-1816), they are also known as Mukhiya.

Near or Wallo Kirat, or the area between the Sunkosi and Dudhkosi rivers, is the Kipat land of Sunuwars. In Near Kirat, Dolakha, Ramechhap and Okhalkhunga are the districts densely populated by Sunuwars. They are also found in Ilam, Jhapa, Pachthar, Sindhuli, Taplejung, Dhanusha, Khotang, Sunsari and Morang districts (Mukhiya, BS2055). The population of Sunuwars, according to the census of 2001, is 95,254. Their population, as enumerated in the census of 1991, was about 41,000. The language of Sunuwars is said to belong to the Sunuwar language subfamily, which had branched off from the main Bahing Kirat language family (Rapacha Sunuwar, BS2056).

The culture of Sunuwars in general is similar to that of the other indigenous peoples of the Kirat family. As the Sunuwars, however, inhabit areas near Kathmandu, their culture is more influenced by Hindu customs than those of other Kirati indigenous peoples. Thus, the Sunuwars, after using their own priest Nahaso and shaman Poiwa, also employ the services of the Hindu Bahun priest (Birahi, BS2054/055). After the birth of a child, the Sunuwar, within three to seven days of birth, receive auspicious offerings (sagun) of alchohol and home-made beer from their priest and pray that the newborn will not suffer any pain while growing up. The Sunuwars marry outside their own thar, or subgroup. There is the practice of arranged as well as love marriages. The Sunuwar do not marry their maternal uncle's and aunt's daughters; however, the marrying of one's widowed elder sister-in-law after agreement on both sides occurs and is not uncommon among Sunuwars. The dead are buried. While performing ceremonies related to death, the Sunuwar live in a separate Tande house of the Halse (spirit) for three days and make offerings of egg and rice in leaves stitched together to hold things (Duna). The spirit is fed rice and meat and assigned to ancestors on the ninth day. On the tenth day, the daughters and female relatives feed salt, cooking oil and end the period of pollution.

Sunuwars have a tradition of typical merrymaking; they dance playing Jhyamta (cymbals), Vinayo (a kind of small musical instrument made of bamboo to be played in mouth), Murchunga (a kind of small musical instrument made of iron to be played in mouth) and other similar musical instruments and wear colourful dresses. They were holding Kipat ownership till the early days of Rana rule and were managing their social, economic and administrative affairs by themselves. The religious functions are performed by their own priests, Poinb, Gyami Nakso even today. Sunuwars have a tradition of organizing village council to solve their social problems. If someone marries a woman outside of his ethnic group, he has to request to his society to absolve him for the wrong he has committed and has to organize feasts for them. Women are comparatively free and enjoy higher states in society.

Sunuwars give importance to ancestor worship. Phyandar or Chandi worship is also an important worship ceremony. Liquor and meat have a special significance in each religious function. Their deities are believed to be closer to nature. Some of the well-known worship ceremonies of Sunuwars are known as Surom worship (worship of goddess of food), Nimlo worship (worship of the deity of fruits), Gil worship (worship of Bhairab-like god of terror), Sed worship (worship of Dwarpal like deities of four directions), Meselmi worship (worship of patron deity), Kolo worship (worship of Kolo deities), Ragan Gyami Poinb worship (worship of shamanistic deities), and so on. Sunuwars worship fire god also. Being a Kirat, they chant Mukdum (Mundhum). But their Mundhum is slightly different from the Mundhum of Rais and Limbus.

They are better known as hunters and horticulturists as they usually prefer to luve at steep terrain. These days they are involved in government jobs and wage earning also besides agricultural pursuits. They are considered accomplished in the work of different kinds of bamboo or cane and other domestic skills.

  The indigenous people settled from time immemorial in the villages of Suri Haleswari, Tinekhu and Khahare in the vicinity of Suri Khola in Dolakha District are called Surel. According to a study conducted at the local level, there are 23 households in ward no. 7, four households in Grangfi, Tinekhu and Suri Dobhan, two households in Khahare and one household in Galpu of Suri VDC of Dolakha District. Thus, there is a population of 149 from altogether 30 households (Maskey, BS2058). According to their mythology, the five sons of ancient Kirata scattered over various places and developed their own languages and cultures. Out of them, the descendants of the youngest brother became Hayu, those of the fourth youngest brother became Limbus, those of the third youngest brother became Rais, those of the second youngest brother became Sunuwar and those of the oldest one became Surels (Maskey: BS2058).

The language of Surels, who are in an absolute minority, belongs to the Tibeto-Burman family and it resembles the language of Sunuwars. They are closer to Sunuwars from the cultural point of view also. Marriage rites and processes also are similar to those of Sunuwars. If a child dies, it is taken to a hill and buried there whereas the grown-ups are cremated on the bank of rivers. Their cultural life appears to have been influenced by neighbouring Hindus. Although influenced religiously by Hinduism and Buddhism, they are worshippers of nature and shamanists. Their jhankri is called Nasko. Bastu (Bumbu) is the creator god. The creator god is offered the produce of the first harvest and there are gods and goddesses who are worshipped regularly (Gautam and Thapa Magar, 1994:341-345).

The Surels are educationally very backward. Only one Surel student has been educated up to Grade 10 in spite of the fact that a secondary school exists in the same village. Only an insignificant number of children go to school. Almost all adults are illiterate. Almost all are dependent on agriculture for their subsistence but their earnings are hardly sufficient for three months. They have a practice of group farming. The young ones go to India in search of work and the older ones make baskets, winnowing trays, porter baskets, bamboo mats and chitras (mats of split canes) of bamboo for sale in local markets. Only a few of them have cattle. They have not been able to get any post so far in local bodies.

Yakkha Rai

The Yakkhas are a distinct indigenous peoples. The Yakkhas are also known as Dewan by other names. The Yakkha area recognized as the traditional land of Yakkha is the southern part of Sankhuwasabha district bordering the district Dhankuta eastern of Nepal. However, the original homeland of the Kirants people speaking the Yakkha language is the histroical five and ten majhiya region in the southwestern part of Pallo or far Kirant area between the Arun and Tamor rivers. Madimulkharka, tamaphok, Mamgling, Ankhinbhuin and Chanuwa Dandagaun are the names of the 10 Majhiyas etc. and Hatisudhe, Kingring, Chapabhuin are the name of five Majhiyas. Today, many Yakkhas have settled in Darjeeling of India. Their population according to the census of HMG 2001, is 17003, and of this population, 14,648 could speak the yakkha language. Yakkha language is a tibeto-burman language.

Following the birth of a Yakkha child, the name-giving ceremony occurs on the fourth day if it is a boy and on the third day if it is a girl. On the day, elderly Yakkha women names the child after a word denoting a date, day and month. Yakkha peoples do not marry between same family names.  When undertaking arranged marriages, marriages do not occur with families sharing the same subgroup (Samechhong)  and three to five families relatively generations. During wedding, musical instruments like Kei (Chayabrung or Dhol) are played and dancing takes place.

The Yakkha's have 32 faimly names (thar) or sub-groups. For example Songren, Somyang, Khamyang, Koyongwa, Hengwa, Pamphu, Thomphara. As among Yakkhas there is a practice of gathering for special occasions and worshipping deities according to decent from the father's side and of keeping the clan deity in the have of the eldest son, we can guess that the Yakkha society is under the leadership of the oldest male of the lineage, in historic and pre-historic times, then were various with their respective posts in Yakkha society to govern etc. This becomes evident from the fact that social posts like Majhiya, Dewan, survive to this day among the Yakkhas.

As rgards to religion, Yakkhas adhere to the Kirant religion, their oral religious text is the Mundhum. That they are nature worshippers can be known from the fact that they worship land (Kahamchayang) clan and house (Pangchyang), and the village (tentemma) andUcchayangi (ubhauli), Chaswa (Udhaul ). They also have the practice fo sacrificing chickens and offering alcohol to their deities, the Yakkhas depend on farming for their livelihood. The Yakkhas who traditionally subsisted by farming their own land were known until some decades ago as Jimi or Jimdar. But following 'unification' their land was confiscated and distributed to others as Birta, thus rendening them land less in various places. Although a few here and there are owners of land today. The condition of those employed in foreign military service and in foreign employment is somewhat better.

Mailing Address:
Kirant Yakkha Chhumma, Central Committee
G.P.O. Box 8975 EPC 848
Kathmandu, Nepal
Ph/Fax : 977-1-5551610

Contact Person:
General Secretary: Ramjee Kongren
E-mail: kong_lawyer@yahoo.co.uk This e-mail address is being protected from spam bots, you need JavaScript enabled to view it

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BJ Bantawa Rai

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